Romans in Britain

The Invasion (AD 43)

Julius Caesar's expeditions (55 and 54 BC): Caesar crossed the Channel twice, defeating British tribes and extracting tribute. These were reconnaissance raids, not conquest — he returned to Gaul both times. Britain remained independent but within Rome's sphere of influence.

Claudius's invasion (AD 43): Four legions (approximately 20,000 legionaries plus auxiliary troops) under Aulus Plautius landed in Kent. Claudius needed the military prestige — he was considered weak and politically vulnerable after his unlikely accession. Britain also offered valuable resources: tin, gold, grain, cattle, and slaves.

Key battle — the Medway crossing: A two-day battle on the River Medway; the Romans crossed unexpectedly, catching the Britons off guard. The Britons retreated to the Thames, and from there the conquest moved inland.

Camulodunum (Colchester) became the first Roman capital of Britain. Claudius himself arrived with war elephants for the triumphal entry — a dramatic display of Roman power that lasted just 16 days before he returned to Rome.

Romanisation

Definition: The process by which conquered peoples adopted Roman customs, language, dress, and architecture — sometimes willingly, sometimes under pressure.

Tacitus, Agricola 21: Tacitus describes how Governor Agricola encouraged British chiefs to wear togas, speak Latin, and build bathhouses. Tacitus's famous remark: the Britons called this "civilisation" when in fact it was "a part of their slavery" (idque apud imperitos humanitas vocabatur, cum pars servitutis esset). This is a rare Roman critique of imperial cultural policy.

Client kings: Togidubnus (also called Cogidubnus) was an example of successful Romanisation — a British king who cooperated with Rome and was rewarded with wealth, Roman citizenship, and possibly Fishbourne Palace near Chichester with its elaborate mosaic floors.

Towns and Buildings

Londinium (London): Grew rapidly after the conquest to become the largest town in Roman Britain, featuring a forum, basilica, amphitheatre (remnants under the Guildhall), and the governor's palace.

Typical Roman town layout:

• Forum — the civic and commercial centre, with a large open square for markets and public meetings
• Basilica — the law courts and administrative building, typically on one side of the forum
• Thermae — public baths, a social centre for all classes
• Temples — dedicated to Roman gods and, later, the emperor
• Amphitheatre — for gladiatorial shows and animal hunts, usually outside the town walls

Villas: Rural estates of wealthy Romanised Britons, featuring mosaic floors, underfloor heating (hypocaust), painted walls, and formal gardens. Evidence of genuine adoption of Roman luxury lifestyle.

Bath (Aquae Sulis): Natural thermal springs made this site sacred to the local Celtic goddess Sulis. The Romans built an elaborate temple and bathing complex, worshipping a merged deity Sulis Minerva — an example of interpretatio romana (religious syncretism).

Roads and the Army

The road network: Roman roads were engineered for speed and durability — straight where terrain allowed, cambered to drain water, with ditches on either side and a layered construction of sand, gravel, and stone. Key roads include Watling Street (Kent to Wales), Fosse Way (Exeter to Lincoln), and Ermine Street (London to York).

Purposes of roads:

• Rapid troop movement to trouble spots
• Trade and supply of goods across the province
• Communication via the cursus publicus (imperial postal system)

Legionary fortresses: Three permanent legionary bases housed the garrison of Britain: York (Eboracum — Legio VI Victrix), Chester (Deva — Legio XX Valeria Victrix), Caerleon in Wales (Isca — Legio II Augusta).

Vindolanda: An auxiliary fort near Hadrian's Wall, famous for its writing tablets — thin wooden leaves preserving everyday correspondence: birthday invitations, requests for underwear and beer, and duty rosters. They provide uniquely human evidence of military life.

Hadrian's Wall

Construction: Built AD 122–128 under Emperor Hadrian, the Wall stretches 73 miles (117 km) coast to coast from Wallsend (Segedunum) on the River Tyne to Bowness-on-Solway on the Solway Firth.

Purpose: Control of movement — tracking who crossed the frontier and taxing goods — rather than purely a defensive barrier. It also served as a display of Roman engineering power and a clear statement of imperial will.

Structure:

• Stone wall approximately 3 metres wide and 4–5 metres high
• A milecastle (small fort) every Roman mile, with two turrets between each
• Large forts (e.g., Housesteads, Vindolanda nearby) at intervals along the Wall
• The Vallum — a flat-bottomed ditch with earth mounds — ran to the south, controlling access to the military zone

Garrison: Auxiliary troops (not legionaries) from across the empire — Syrian archers, Batavian cavalry, Tungrian infantry — evidence of the multicultural nature of the Roman army.

Resistance: Boudicca's Revolt (AD 60–61)

Causes: When King Prasutagus of the Iceni (Norfolk area) died, he left his kingdom jointly to Rome and his daughters, hoping Rome would honour this. Instead, Rome annexed the entire kingdom. Boudicca, his widow, was flogged and her daughters assaulted — a deliberate act of humiliation and power.

The revolt: Boudicca united several tribes and destroyed three Roman cities: Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London), and Verulamium (St Albans). An estimated 70,000–80,000 people were killed. A layer of burned material (the "Boudiccan destruction horizon") is still visible in archaeological excavations of London.

Defeat: Governor Paulinus returned from campaigning in Wales and chose a narrow battlefield that negated the Britons' numerical advantage. Roman discipline and training overcame the larger British force. Estimates suggest 80,000 Britons fell against around 400 Romans.

Aftermath: Initial harsh reprisals against the Iceni were followed by more conciliatory policies under a new procurator. Boudicca's fate is uncertain — Tacitus says she took poison; Dio Cassius says she died of illness.